Prevalence of human cystic echinococcosis in the towns of Ñorquinco and Ramos Mexia in Rio Negro Province, Argentina, and direct risk factors for infection.

BACKGROUND: Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a parasitic zoonosis caused by infection with the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus (s.l.). This study investigated the prevalence and potential risk factors associated with human CE in the towns and rural areas of Ñorquinco and Ramos Mexia, Rio Negro province, Argentina. METHODS: To detect abdominal CE cysts, we screened 892 volunteers by ultrasound and investigated potential risk factors for CE using a standardized questionnaire. Prevalence ratio (PR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) was used to measure the association between CE and the factors investigated, applying bivariate and multivariate analyses. RESULTS: Abdominal CE was detected in 42/892 screened volunteers (4.7%, 95% CI 3.2-6.1), only two of whom were under 15 years of age. Thirteen (30.9%) CE cases had 25 cysts in active stages (CE1, CE2, CE3a, according to the WHO Informal Working Group on Echinococcosis [WHO-IWGE] classification). The most relevant risk factors identified in the bivariate analysis included: living in rural areas (P = 0.003), age > 40 years (P = 0.000), always drinking water from natural sources (P = 0.007), residing in rural areas during the first 5 years of life (P = 0.000) and having lived more than 20 years at the current address (P = 0.013). In the multivariate final model, the statistically significant risk factors were: frequently touching dogs (P = 0.012), residing in rural areas during the first 5 years of life (P = 0.004), smoking (P = 0.000), age > 60 years (P = 0.002) and living in rural areas (P = 0.017). CONCLUSIONS: Our results point toward infection with CE being acquired since childhood and with constant exposure throughout life, especially in rural areas with a general environmental contamination.

Malaria epidemiology in Suriname from 2000 to 2016: trends, opportunities and challenges for elimination.

BACKGROUND: Suriname has experienced a significant change in malaria transmission risk and incidence over the past years. The country is now moving toward malaria elimination. The first objective of this study is to describe malaria epidemiological trends in Suriname between 2000 and 2016. The second objective is to identify spatiotemporal malaria trends in notification points between 2007 and 2016. METHODS: National malaria surveillance data resulting from active and passive screening between 2000 and 2016 were used for the temporal trend analysis. A space-time cluster analysis using SaTScan™ was conducted on Malaria Programme-data from 2007 to 2016 comparing cases (people tested positive) with controls (people tested negative). RESULTS: Suriname experienced a period of high malaria incidence during 2000-2005, followed by a steep decline in number of malaria cases from 2005 onwards. Imported malaria cases, mostly of Brazilian nationality and travelling from French Guiana, were major contributors to the reported number of cases, exceeding the national malaria burden (94.2% of the total). Most clusters in notification points are found in the border area between Suriname and French Guiana. Clustering was also found in the migrant clinic in Paramaribo. CONCLUSIONS: Suriname has successfully reduced malaria to near-elimination level in the last 17 years. However, the high malaria import rate resulting from cross-border moving migrants is a major challenge for reaching elimination. This requires continued investment in the national health system, with a focus on border screening and migrant health. A regional approach to malaria elimination within the Guianas and Brazil is urgently needed.

Improved tools and strategies for the prevention and control of arboviral diseases: A research-to-policy forum.

BACKGROUND: Research has been conducted on interventions to control dengue transmission and respond to outbreaks. A summary of the available evidence will help inform disease control policy decisions and research directions, both for dengue and, more broadly, for all Aedes-borne arboviral diseases. METHOD: A research-to-policy forum was convened by TDR, the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, with researchers and representatives from ministries of health, in order to review research findings and discuss their implications for policy and research. RESULTS: The participants reviewed findings of research supported by TDR and others. Surveillance and early outbreak warning. Systematic reviews and country studies identify the critical characteristics that an alert system should have to document trends reliably and trigger timely responses (i.e., early enough to prevent the epidemic spread of the virus) to dengue outbreaks. A range of variables that, according to the literature, either indicate risk of forthcoming dengue transmission or predict dengue outbreaks were tested and some of them could be successfully applied in an Early Warning and Response System (EWARS). Entomological surveillance and vector management. A summary of the published literature shows that controlling Aedes vectors requires complex interventions and points to the need for more rigorous, standardised study designs, with disease reduction as the primary outcome to be measured. House screening and targeted vector interventions are promising vector management approaches. Sampling vector populations, both for surveillance purposes and evaluation of control activities, is usually conducted in an unsystematic way, limiting the potentials of entomological surveillance for outbreak prediction. Combining outbreak alert and improved approaches of vector management will help to overcome the present uncertainties about major risk groups or areas where outbreak response should be initiated and where resources for vector management should be allocated during the interepidemic period. CONCLUSIONS: The Forum concluded that the evidence collected can inform policy decisions, but also that important research gaps have yet to be filled.

Quantitative and histological assessment of maternal-fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in guinea pigs: An experimental model of congenital Chagas disease.

OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the effect of Trypanosoma cruzi infection on fertility, gestation outcome, and maternal-fetal transmission in guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus). METHODS: Animals were infected with T. cruzi H4 strain (TcI lineage) before gestation (IBG) or during gestation (IDG). Tissue and sera samples of dams and fetuses were obtained near parturition. RESULTS: All IBG and IDG dams were seropositive by two tests, and exhibited blood parasite load of 1.62±2.2 and 50.1±62 parasites/µl, respectively, by quantitative PCR. Histological evaluation showed muscle fiber degeneration and cellular necrosis in all infected dams. Parasite nests were not detected in infected dams by histology. However, qPCR analysis detected parasites-eq/g heart tissue of 153±104.7 and 169.3±129.4 in IBG and IDG dams, respectively. All fetuses of infected dams were positive for anti-parasite IgG antibodies and tissue parasites by qPCR, but presented a low level of tissue inflammatory infiltrate. Fetuses of IDG (vs. IBG) dams exhibited higher degree of muscle fiber degeneration and cellular necrosis in the heart and skeletal tissues. The placental tissue exhibited no inflammatory lesions and amastigote nests, yet parasites-eq/g of 381.2±34.3 and 79.2±84.9 were detected in IDG and IBG placentas, respectively. Fetal development was compromised, and evidenced by a decline in weight, crow-rump length, and abdominal width in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: T. cruzi TcI has a high capacity of congenital transmission even when it was inoculated at a very low dose before or during gestation. Tissue lesions, parasite load, and fetal under development provide evidence for high virulence of the parasite during pregnancy. Despite finding of high parasite burden by qPCR, placentas were protected from cellular damage. Our studies offer an experimental model to study the efficacy of vaccines and drugs against congenital transmission of T. cruzi. These results also call for T. cruzi screening in pregnant women and adequate follow up of the newborns in endemic areas.

The applicability of real-time PCR in the diagnostic of cutaneous leishmaniasis and parasite quantification for clinical management: Current status and perspectives.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is spread worldwide and is the most common manifestation of leishmaniasis. Diagnosis is performed by combining clinical and epidemiological features, and through the detection of Leishmania parasites (or DNA) in tissue specimens or trough parasite isolation in culture medium. Diagnosis of CL is challenging, reflecting the pleomorphic clinical manifestations of this disease. Skin lesions vary in severity, clinical appearance, and duration, and in some cases, they can be indistinguishable from lesions related to other diseases. Over the past few decades, PCR-based methods, including real-time PCR assays, have been developed for Leishmania detection, quantification and species identification, improving the molecular diagnosis of CL. This review provides an overview of many real-time PCR methods reported for the diagnostic evaluation of CL and some recommendations for the application of these methods for quantification purposes for clinical management and epidemiological studies. Furthermore, the use of real-time PCR for Leishmania species identification is also presented. The advantages of real-time PCR protocols are numerous, including increased sensitivity and specificity and simpler standardization of diagnostic procedures. However, despite the numerous assays described, there is still no consensus regarding the methods employed. Furthermore, the analytical and clinical validation of CL molecular diagnosis has not followed international guidelines so far. A consensus methodology comprising a DNA extraction protocol with an exogenous quality control and an internal reference to normalize parasite load is still needed. In addition, the analytical and clinical performance of any consensus methodology must be accurately assessed. This review shows that a standardization initiative is essential to guide researchers and clinical laboratories towards the achievement of a robust and reproducible methodology, which will permit further evaluation of parasite load as a surrogate marker of prognosis and monitoring of aetiological treatment, particularly in multi-centric observational studies and clinical trials.

Quality of tuberculosis care at different levels of health care in Brazil in 2013.

Objective To assess 1) the burden and socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of tuberculosis (TB) cases, and 2) the quality of TB care provided to patients who entered and remained within each health care service level (primary, secondary, or tertiary) and those who moved from one level to another, using process and results indicators. Methods This cross-sectional operational research study assessed new smear-positive pulmonary TB cases diagnosed in Brazilian state capitals in 2013 using TB program records and the TB surveillance system. Quality of care was assessed based on process and results indicators including HIV screening, TB contact screening, Directly Observed Treatment (DOT), sputum smear microscopy monitoring, and treatment outcomes. Results There were 12 977 new smear-positive TB cases reported. Of these, 7 964 (61.4%) cases were diagnosed and treated at the primary care level, 1 195 (9.2%) at the secondary level, 1 521 (11.7%) at the tertiary level, and 2 296 (17.7%) at more than one level, with 65% of the latter group moved from the tertiary level to the primary level. The proportion of cases tested for HIV was significantly higher in patients receiving care at the primary level compared to those receiving care at the secondary level (prevalence ratio (PR): 1.17; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.07-1.28) and those attending more than one service level. Patients attending the tertiary health care level had a 122% higher PR for not doing DOT ("DOT not done") compared to patients at the primary level (PR: 2.22; CI: 2.12-2.32). When the two levels were compared, the prevalence for an unfavorable outcome (lost to follow-up, death from TB, death with TB, transferred out, or not evaluated) was higher at the tertiary health care level. Conclusions Primary health services are successfully incorporating the management of new smear-positive TB cases. Primary health care obtained better operational indicators than secondary or tertiary levels.

Implementation of the national tuberculosis guidelines on culture and drug sensitivity testing in Guatemala, 2013.

Objective To assess whether the National Tuberculosis Program (NTP) guidelines for culture and drug sensitivity testing (DST) in Guatemala were successfully implemented, particularly in cases of smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) or previously treated TB, by documenting notification rates by department (geographic area), disease type and category, and culture and DST results. Methods This was a cross-sectional, operational research study that merged and linked all patients registered by the NTP and the National Reference Laboratory in 2013, eliminating duplicates. The proportions with culture (for new smear negative pulmonary cases) and culture combined with DST (for previously treated patients) were estimated and analyzed by department. Data were analyzed using EpiData Analysis version 2.2. Results There were 3 074 patients registered with TB (all forms), for a case notification rate of 20/100 000 population. Of these, 2 842 had new TB, of which 2 167 (76%) were smear-positive pulmonary TB (PTB), 385 (14%) were smear-negative PTB, and 290 (10%) were extrapulmonary TB. There were 232 (8%) previously treated cases. Case notification rates (all forms) varied by department from 2-68 per 100 000 population, with the highest rates seen in the southwest and northeast part of Guatemala. Of new TB patients, 136 had a culture performed and 55 had DST of which the results were 33 fully sensitive, 9 monoresistant, 3 polyresistant, and 10 multidrug resistant TB (MDR-TB). Only 21 (5%) of new smear-negative PTB patients had cultures. Of 232 previously treated patients, 54 (23%) had a culture and 47 (20%) had DST, of which 29 were fully sensitive, 7 monoresistant, 2 polyresistant, and 9 MDR-TB. Of 22 departments (including the capital), culture and DST was performed in new smear-negative PTB in 7 departments (32%) and in previously treated TB in 13 departments (59%). Conclusions Despite national guidelines, only 5% of smear-negative PTB cases had a culture and only 20% of previously treated TB had a culture and DST. Several departments did not perform culture or DST. These short comings must be improved if Guatemala is to curtail the spread of drug resistant forms of TB, while striving to eliminate all TB.

Contrasting trends of tuberculosis in the cities of San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 2005-2014.

Objective To 1) describe and compare the trends of tuberculosis (TB) case notification rates (CNRs) and treatment outcomes in the two largest cities in Honduras (San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa) for the period 2005-2014 and 2) identify possible related socioeconomic and health sector factors. Methods This retrospective ecological operational research study used aggregated data from the National TB Program (socioeconomic and health sector information and individual data from the 2014 TB case notification report). Results TB CNRs declined steadily over the study period in Tegucigalpa (from 46 to 28 per 100 000 inhabitants) but remained high in San Pedro Sula (decreasing from 89 to 78 per 100 000 inhabitants). Similar trends were observed for smear-positive TB. While presumptive TB cases examined were similar for both cities, in San Pedro Sula the proportions of presumptive cases with a positive smear; (7.7% versus 3.6%) relapses (8.9% versus 4.2%); and patients lost to follow-up (10.9% versus 2.7%) were significantly higher, and the treatment success lower (75.7% versus 87.0%). San Pedro Sula had lower annual income per capita, fewer public sector health workers and facilities, and a higher and increasing homicide index. The 2014 TB case data from San Pedro Sula showed a significantly lower median age and a higher proportion of assembly plant workers, prisoners, drug abusers, and diabetes. Conclusions The TB rate was higher and treatment success lower, and health care resources and socio-demographic indicators less favorable, in San Pedro Sula versus Tegucigalpa. City authorities, the NTP, and the health sector overall should strengthen early case detection, treatment, and infection control, involving both public and private health sectors.

Contrasting trends of tuberculosis in the cities of San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 2005–2014 / Contrasting trends of tuberculosis in the cities of San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 2005–2014 Ejecución Tendencias discordantes de tuberculosis en San Pedro Sula y Tegucigalpa, Honduras, del 2005 al 2014

Objective. To 1) describe and compare the trends of tuberculosis (TB) case notification rates (CNRs) and treatment outcomes in the two largest cities in Honduras (San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa) for the period 2005–2014 and 2) identify possible related socioeconomic and health sector factors. Methods. This retrospective ecological operational research study used aggregated data from the National TB Program (socioeconomic and health sector information and individual data from the 2014 TB case notification report). Results. TB CNRs declined steadily over the study period in Tegucigalpa (from 46 to 28 per 100 000 inhabitants) but remained high in San Pedro Sula (decreasing from 89 to 78 per 100 000 inhabitants). Similar trends were observed for smear-positive TB. While presumptive TB cases examined were similar for both cities, in San Pedro Sula the proportions of presumptive cases with a positive smear; (7.7% versus 3.6%) relapses (8.9% versus 4.2%); and patients lost to follow-up (10.9% versus 2.7%) were significantly higher, and the treatment success lower (75.7% versus 87.0%). San Pedro Sula had lower annual income per capita, fewer public sector health workers and facilities, and a higher and increasing homicide index. The 2014 TB case data from San Pedro Sula showed a significantly lower median age and a higher proportion of assembly plant workers, prisoners, drug abusers, and diabetes. Conclusions. The TB rate was higher and treatment success lower, and health care resources and socio-demographic indicators less favorable, in San Pedro Sula versus Tegucigalpa. City authorities, the NTP, and the health sector overall should strengthen early case detection, treatment, and infection control, involving both public and private health sectors.

Objetivo. Describir y comparar las tendencias de las tasas de notificación de casos de tuberculosis y los desenlaces terapéuticos en las dos principales ciudades de Honduras (San Pedro Sula y Tegucigalpa) durante el período del 2005 al 2014; y reconocer los posibles factores socioeconómicos y del sector de la salud que se relacionan con estos resultados. Métodos. Estudio ecológico retrospectivo de investigación operativa con datos agregados del Programa Nacional contra la Tuberculosis. La información socioeconómica y del sector de la salud y los datos individuales se obtuvieron del informe de notificación de casos de tuberculosis del 2014. Resultados. Las tasas de notificación de casos de tuberculosis disminuyeron en forma sostenida durante el período del estudio en Tegucigalpa (de 46 a 28 por 100 000 habitantes) pero permanecieron altas en San Pedro Sula (disminuyeron de 89 a 78 casos por 100 000 habitantes). Se observaron tendencias análogas en los casos de tuberculosis con baciloscopia positiva. Si bien el número de casos con presunción clínica de tuberculosis examinados en ambas ciudades fue equivalente, en San Pedro Sula los casos con baciloscopia positiva, las recaídas (8,9% frente a 4,2%) y los pacientes perdidos durante el seguimiento (10,9% frente a 2,7%) fueron significativamente más frecuentes y la tasa de éxito terapéutico fue más baja (75,7% frente a 87,0%). En San Pedro Sula se observó un ingreso anual por habitante más bajo, menos personal y establecimientos de salud en el sector público, y un índice más alto y creciente de homicidios. Los datos sobre los casos de tuberculosis del 2014 en San Pedro Sula revelaron una mediana de edad de los pacientes significativamente menor y una mayor proporción de trabajadores de instalaciones de montaje, prisioneros, consumidores de drogas y pacientes con diabetes. Conclusiones. En San Pedro Sula la tasa de tuberculosis fue más alta, la tasa de éxito terapéutico fue inferior y los indicadores sobre los recursos de atención de salud y los aspectos sociodemográficos fueron menos favorables en comparación con Tegucigalpa. Las autoridades municipales, el Programa Nacional contra la Tuberculosis y el sector sanitario en general deben fortalecer la detección temprana de casos, el tratamiento y el control de la infección mediante la participación del sector público y el sector privado de la salud. Palabras clave Tuberculosis, zonas

Implementation of the national tuberculosis guidelines on culture and drug sensitivity testing in Guatemala, 2013 / Ejecución de las directrices nacionales de tuberculosis sobre cultivo y antibiograma en Guatemala en el 2013

Objective. To assess whether the National Tuberculosis Program (NTP) guidelines for culture and drug sensitivity testing (DST) in Guatemala were successfully implemented, particularly in cases of smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) or previously treated TB, by documenting notification rates by department (geographic area), disease type and category, and culture and DST results. Methods. This was a cross-sectional, operational research study that merged and linked all patients registered by the NTP and the National Reference Laboratory in 2013, eliminating duplicates. The proportions with culture (for new smear negative pulmonary cases) and culture combined with DST (for previously treated patients) were estimated and analyzed by department. Data were analyzed using EpiData Analysis version 2.2. Results. There were 3 074 patients registered with TB (all forms), for a case notification rate of 20/100 000 population. Of these, 2 842 had new TB, of which 2 167 (76%) were smear-positive pulmonary TB (PTB), 385 (14%) were smear-negative PTB, and 290 (10%) were extrapulmonary TB. There were 232 (8%) previously treated cases. Case notification rates (all forms) varied by department from 2–68 per 100 000 population, with the highest rates seen in the southwest and northeast part of Guatemala. Of new TB patients, 136 had a culture performed and 55 had DST of which the results were 33 fully sensitive, 9 monoresistant, 3 polyresistant, and 10 multidrug resistant TB (MDR-TB). Only 21 (5%) of new smear-negative PTB patients had cultures. Of 232 previously treated patients, 54 (23%) had a culture and 47 (20%) had DST, of which 29 were fully sensitive, 7 monoresistant, 2 polyresistant, and 9 MDR-TB. Of 22 departments (including the capital), culture and DST was performed in new smear-negative PTB in 7 departments (32%) and in previously treated TB in 13 departments (59%). Conclusions. Despite national guidelines, only 5% of smear-negative PTB cases had a culture and only 20% of previously treated TB had a culture and DST. Several departments did not perform culture or DST. These short comings must be improved if Guatemala is to curtail the spread of drug resistant forms of TB, while striving to eliminate all TB.

Objetivo. Evaluar la eficacia de la ejecución de las directrices del Programa Nacional contra la Tuberculosis sobre cultivo y antibiograma en Guatemala, sobre todo en los casos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia negativa o con antecedentes de tratamiento antituberculoso, mediante la investigación de las tasas de notificación por departamentos (o zonas geográficas), por tipos y categorías de la enfermedad y el examen de los resultados del cultivo y el antibiograma. Métodos. Estudio transversal de investigación operativa en el cual se fusionaron y se vincularon todos los pacientes registrados en el Programa Nacional contra la Tuberculosis y el Laboratorio Nacional de Referencia en el 2013, tras la eliminación de los duplicados. Se calculó la proporción de casos con cultivo (en los casos nuevos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia negativa) y de casos con cultivo y antibiograma (en los casos anteriormente tratados) y se analizaron por departamentos. Resultados. Se registraron 3 074 pacientes con diagnóstico de tuberculosis (de todas las formas), lo cual representa una tasa de notificación de 20 casos por 100 000 habitantes. De estos pacientes, 2 842 fueron casos nuevos de tuberculosis, de los cuales 2 167 (76%) con diagnóstico de tuberculosis pulmonar y baciloscopia positiva, 385 (14%) con tuberculosis pulmonar y baciloscopia negativa y 290 casos (10%) con diagnóstico de tuberculosis extrapulmonar. Los casos con antecedentes de tratamiento antituberculoso fueron 232 (8%). Las tasas de notificación (de todas las formas) según el departamento oscilaron entre 2 y 68 casos por 100 000 habitantes y las tasas más altas se observaron en el suroeste y en parte del noreste de Guatemala. De los casos nuevos de tuberculosis, 136 contaban con cultivo y 55 con antibiograma; los resultados de estas pruebas revelaron 33 casos completamente sensibles, 9 casos monorresistentes, 3 casos polirresistentes y 10 casos de tuberculosis multirresistente (MR). Solo 21 (5%) de los casos nuevos de tuberculosis pulmonar y baciloscopia negativa contaban con cultivo. De los 232 pacientes anteriormente tratados, 54 (23%) contaban con cultivo y 47 (20%) con antibiograma, cuyos resultados fueron 29 casos completamente sensibles, 7 monorresistentes, 2 polirresistentes y 9 casos de tuberculosis MR. De 22 departamentos (incluida la capital), en 7 (32%) se efectuaba cultivo y antibiograma a los casos nuevos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia negativa y en 13 departamentos (59%) a los casos de tuberculosis anteriormente tratada. Conclusiones. Pese a la existencia de directrices nacionales, solo 5% de los casos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia negativa contaba con cultivo y solo 20% de los casos de tuberculosis anteriormente tratada contaba con cultivo y antibiograma. En varios departamentos no se llevaban a cabo cultivos ni antibiogramas. Es preciso que se corrijan estas deficiencias en Guatemala si el país busca limitar la diseminación de la farmacorresistencia en su progreso hacia la eliminación total de la tuberculosis.

Quality of tuberculosis care at different levels of health care in Brazil in 2013 / Calidad de la asistencia de la tuberculosis en los diferentes niveles de atención de salud del Brasil en el 2013

Objective. To assess 1) the burden and socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of tuberculosis (TB) cases, and 2) the quality of TB care provided to patients who entered and remained within each health care service level (primary, secondary, or tertiary) and those who moved from one level to another, using process and results indicators. Methods. This cross-sectional operational research study assessed new smear-positive pulmonary TB cases diagnosed in Brazilian state capitals in 2013 using TB program records and the TB surveillance system. Quality of care was assessed based on process and results indicators including HIV screening, TB contact screening, Directly Observed Treatment (DOT), sputum smear microscopy monitoring, and treatment outcomes. Results. There were 12 977 new smear-positive TB cases reported. Of these, 7 964 (61.4%) cases were diagnosed and treated at the primary care level, 1 195 (9.2%) at the secondary level, 1 521 (11.7%) at the tertiary level, and 2 296 (17.7%) at more than one level, with 65% of the latter group moved from the tertiary level to the primary level. The proportion of cases tested for HIV was significantly higher in patients receiving care at the primary level compared to those receiving care at the secondary level (prevalence ratio (PR): 1.17; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.07–1.28) and those attending more than one service level. Patients attending the tertiary health care level had a 122% higher PR for not doing DOT (“DOT not done”) compared to patients at the primary level (PR: 2.22; CI: 2.12–2.32). When the two levels were compared, the prevalence for an unfavorable outcome (lost to follow-up, death from TB, death with TB, transferred out, or not evaluated) was higher at the tertiary health care level. Conclusions. Primary health services are successfully incorporating the management of new smear-positive TB cases. Primary health care obtained better operational indicators than secondary or tertiary levels.

Objetivo. Evaluar 1) la carga de morbilidad por tuberculosis y las características sociodemográficas y clínicas de los pacientes y 2) la calidad de la atención de la tuberculosis que se presta a los pacientes que acuden y permanecen en cada nivel de los servicios de salud (primario, secundario o terciario) y a los pacientes que se transfirieron a otro nivel, mediante el análisis de los indicadores de funcionamiento de los procesos y los indicadores de resultados. Métodos. En el presente estudio transversal de investigación operativa se analizaron los casos nuevos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia positiva que se diagnosticaron en las capitales estatales del Brasil en el 2013, a partir de los registros del programa contra la tuberculosis y los datos del sistema de vigilancia de la enfermedad. Se evaluó la calidad de la atención en función de los indicadores de funcionamiento y los indicadores de resultados como la detección sistemática de la infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH), el tamizaje de los contactos de casos de tuberculosis, el tratamiento estrictamente supervisado (conocido como DOT, por su sigla en inglés), la supervisión de la baciloscopia del esputo y los desenlaces terapéuticos. Resultados. Se notificaron 12 977 casos nuevos de tuberculosis con baciloscopia positiva. De los casos notificados, 7 964 (61,4%) se diagnosticaron y recibieron tratamiento en el nivel de atención primaria, 1 195 (9,2%) en el nivel secundario, 1 521 (11,7%) en el nivel terciario y 2 296 pacientes (17,7%) recibieron asistencia en servicios de varios niveles de atención; de este último grupo, el 65% pasó del nivel terciario al nivel primario de atención. La proporción de casos en los cuales se practicó la detección de la infección por el VIH fue significativamente mayor en los pacientes que acudieron al nivel primario de atención, al compararlos con los que recibieron atención en el nivel secundario (razón de prevalencia, [RP]: 1,17; intervalo de confianza [IC] de 95%: de 1,07 a 1,28) y los pacientes tratados en servicios de varios niveles de atención. En los pacientes que acudieron al nivel terciario de atención de salud, la razón de prevalencia de no seguir el DOT fue 122% más alta que en los pacientes atendidos en el nivel primario (RP: 2,22; IC de 95%: de 2,12 a 2,32). Cuando se compararon ambos niveles, la prevalencia de un resultado desfavorable (pérdida durante el seguimiento, defunción por tuberculosis, defunción con tuberculosis, transferido a otro centro o no evaluado) fue más alta en el nivel terciario de atención sanitaria. Conclusiones. Los servicios de atención primaria de salud han incorporado de manera eficaz el tratamiento de los casos nuevos de tuberculosis con baciloscopia positiva. Los indicadores operativos de la atención primaria de salud fueron mejores que los indicadores de la atención de nivel secundario o terciario.

Quality of tuberculosis care at different levels of health care in Brazil in 2013 / Calidad de la asistencia de la tuberculosis en los diferentes niveles de atención de salud del Brasil en el 2013

ABSTRACT Objective To assess 1) the burden and socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of tuberculosis (TB) cases, and 2) the quality of TB care provided to patients who entered and remained within each health care service level (primary, secondary, or tertiary) and those who moved from one level to another, using process and results indicators. Methods This cross-sectional operational research study assessed new smear-positive pulmonary TB cases diagnosed in Brazilian state capitals in 2013 using TB program records and the TB surveillance system. Quality of care was assessed based on process and results indicators including HIV screening, TB contact screening, Directly Observed Treatment (DOT), sputum smear microscopy monitoring, and treatment outcomes. Results There were 12 977 new smear-positive TB cases reported. Of these, 7 964 (61.4%) cases were diagnosed and treated at the primary care level, 1 195 (9.2%) at the secondary level, 1 521 (11.7%) at the tertiary level, and 2 296 (17.7%) at more than one level, with 65% of the latter group moved from the tertiary level to the primary level. The proportion of cases tested for HIV was significantly higher in patients receiving care at the primary level compared to those receiving care at the secondary level (prevalence ratio (PR): 1.17; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.07–1.28) and those attending more than one service level. Patients attending the tertiary health care level had a 122% higher PR for not doing DOT (“DOT not done”) compared to patients at the primary level (PR: 2.22; CI: 2.12–2.32). When the two levels were compared, the prevalence for an unfavorable outcome (lost to follow-up, death from TB, death with TB, transferred out, or not evaluated) was higher at the tertiary health care level. Conclusions Primary health services are successfully incorporating the management of new smear-positive TB cases. Primary health care obtained better operational indicators than secondary or tertiary levels.

RESUMEN Objetivo Evaluar 1) la carga de morbilidad por tuberculosis y las características sociodemográficas y clínicas de los pacientes y 2) la calidad de la atención de la tuberculosis que se presta a los pacientes que acuden y permanecen en cada nivel de los servicios de salud (primario, secundario o terciario) y a los pacientes que se transfirieron a otro nivel, mediante el análisis de los indicadores de funcionamiento de los procesos y los indicadores de resultados. Métodos En el presente estudio transversal de investigación operativa se analizaron los casos nuevos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia positiva que se diagnosticaron en las capitales estatales del Brasil en el 2013, a partir de los registros del programa contra la tuberculosis y los datos del sistema de vigilancia de la enfermedad. Se evaluó la calidad de la atención en función de los indicadores de funcionamiento y los indicadores de resultados como la detección sistemática de la infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH), el tamizaje de los contactos de casos de tuberculosis, el tratamiento estrictamente supervisado (conocido como DOT, por su sigla en inglés), la supervisión de la baciloscopia del esputo y los desenlaces terapéuticos. Resultados Se notificaron 12 977 casos nuevos de tuberculosis con baciloscopia positiva. De los casos notificados, 7 964 (61,4%) se diagnosticaron y recibieron tratamiento en el nivel de atención primaria, 1 195 (9,2%) en el nivel secundario, 1 521 (11,7%) en el nivel terciario y 2 296 pacientes (17,7%) recibieron asistencia en servicios de varios niveles de atención; de este último grupo, el 65% pasó del nivel terciario al nivel primario de atención. La proporción de casos en los cuales se practicó la detección de la infección por el VIH fue significativamente mayor en los pacientes que acudieron al nivel primario de atención, al compararlos con los que recibieron atención en el nivel secundario (razón de prevalencia, [RP]: 1,17; intervalo de confianza [IC] de 95%: de 1,07 a 1,28) y los pacientes tratados en servicios de varios niveles de atención. En los pacientes que acudieron al nivel terciario de atención de salud, la razón de prevalencia de no seguir el DOT fue 122% más alta que en los pacientes atendidos en el nivel primario (RP: 2,22; IC de 95%: de 2,12 a 2,32). Cuando se compararon ambos niveles, la prevalencia de un resultado desfavorable (pérdida durante el seguimiento, defunción por tuberculosis, defunción con tuberculosis, transferido a otro centro o no evaluado) fue más alta en el nivel terciario de atención sanitaria. Conclusiones Los servicios de atención primaria de salud han incorporado de manera eficaz el tratamiento de los casos nuevos de tuberculosis con baciloscopia positiva. Los indicadores operativos de la atención primaria de salud fueron mejores que los indicadores de la atención de nivel secundario o terciario.

Implementation of the national tuberculosis guidelines on culture and drug sensitivity testing in Guatemala, 2013 / Ejecución de las directrices nacionales de tuberculosis sobre cultivo y antibiograma en Guatemala en el 2013

ABSTRACT Objective To assess whether the National Tuberculosis Program (NTP) guidelines for culture and drug sensitivity testing (DST) in Guatemala were successfully implemented, particularly in cases of smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) or previously treated TB, by documenting notification rates by department (geographic area), disease type and category, and culture and DST results. Methods This was a cross-sectional, operational research study that merged and linked all patients registered by the NTP and the National Reference Laboratory in 2013, eliminating duplicates. The proportions with culture (for new smear negative pulmonary cases) and culture combined with DST (for previously treated patients) were estimated and analyzed by department. Data were analyzed using EpiData Analysis version 2.2. Results There were 3 074 patients registered with TB (all forms), for a case notification rate of 20/100 000 population. Of these, 2 842 had new TB, of which 2 167 (76%) were smear-positive pulmonary TB (PTB), 385 (14%) were smear-negative PTB, and 290 (10%) were extrapulmonary TB. There were 232 (8%) previously treated cases. Case notification rates (all forms) varied by department from 2–68 per 100 000 population, with the highest rates seen in the southwest and northeast part of Guatemala. Of new TB patients, 136 had a culture performed and 55 had DST of which the results were 33 fully sensitive, 9 monoresistant, 3 polyresistant, and 10 multidrug resistant TB (MDR-TB). Only 21 (5%) of new smear-negative PTB patients had cultures. Of 232 previously treated patients, 54 (23%) had a culture and 47 (20%) had DST, of which 29 were fully sensitive, 7 monoresistant, 2 polyresistant, and 9 MDR-TB. Of 22 departments (including the capital), culture and DST was performed in new smear-negative PTB in 7 departments (32%) and in previously treated TB in 13 departments (59%). Conclusions Despite national guidelines, only 5% of smear-negative PTB cases had a culture and only 20% of previously treated TB had a culture and DST. Several departments did not perform culture or DST. These short comings must be improved if Guatemala is to curtail the spread of drug resistant forms of TB, while striving to eliminate all TB.

RESUMEN Objetivo Evaluar la eficacia de la ejecución de las directrices del Programa Nacional contra la Tuberculosis sobre cultivo y antibiograma en Guatemala, sobre todo en los casos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia negativa o con antecedentes de tratamiento antituberculoso, mediante la investigación de las tasas de notificación por departamentos (o zonas geográficas), por tipos y categorías de la enfermedad y el examen de los resultados del cultivo y el antibiograma. Métodos Estudio transversal de investigación operativa en el cual se fusionaron y se vincularon todos los pacientes registrados en el Programa Nacional contra la Tuberculosis y el Laboratorio Nacional de Referencia en el 2013, tras la eliminación de los duplicados. Se calculó la proporción de casos con cultivo (en los casos nuevos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia negativa) y de casos con cultivo y antibiograma (en los casos anteriormente tratados) y se analizaron por departamentos. Resultados Se registraron 3 074 pacientes con diagnóstico de tuberculosis (de todas las formas), lo cual representa una tasa de notificación de 20 casos por 100 000 habitantes. De estos pacientes, 2 842 fueron casos nuevos de tuberculosis, de los cuales 2 167 (76%) con diagnóstico de tuberculosis pulmonar y baciloscopia positiva, 385 (14%) con tuberculosis pulmonar y baciloscopia negativa y 290 casos (10%) con diagnóstico de tuberculosis extrapulmonar. Los casos con antecedentes de tratamiento antituberculoso fueron 232 (8%). Las tasas de notificación (de todas las formas) según el departamento oscilaron entre 2 y 68 casos por 100 000 habitantes y las tasas más altas se observaron en el suroeste y en parte del noreste de Guatemala. De los casos nuevos de tuberculosis, 136 contaban con cultivo y 55 con antibiograma; los resultados de estas pruebas revelaron 33 casos completamente sensibles, 9 casos monorresistentes, 3 casos polirresistentes y 10 casos de tuberculosis multirresistente (MR). Solo 21 (5%) de los casos nuevos de tuberculosis pulmonar y baciloscopia negativa contaban con cultivo. De los 232 pacientes anteriormente tratados, 54 (23%) contaban con cultivo y 47 (20%) con antibiograma, cuyos resultados fueron 29 casos completamente sensibles, 7 monorresistentes, 2 polirresistentes y 9 casos de tuberculosis MR. De 22 departamentos (incluida la capital), en 7 (32%) se efectuaba cultivo y antibiograma a los casos nuevos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia negativa y en 13 departamentos (59%) a los casos de tuberculosis anteriormente tratada. Conclusiones Pese a la existencia de directrices nacionales, solo 5% de los casos de tuberculosis pulmonar con baciloscopia negativa contaba con cultivo y solo 20% de los casos de tuberculosis anteriormente tratada contaba con cultivo y antibiograma. En varios departamentos no se llevaban a cabo cultivos ni antibiogramas. Es preciso que se corrijan estas deficiencias en Guatemala si el país busca limitar la diseminación de la farmacorresistencia en su progreso hacia la eliminación total de la tuberculosis.

Contrasting trends of tuberculosis in the cities of San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 2005 and 2014 / Tendencias discordantes de tuberculosis en San Pedro Sula y Tegucigalpa, Honduras, del 2005 al 2014

ABSTRACT Objective To 1) describe and compare the trends of tuberculosis (TB) case notification rates (CNRs) and treatment outcomes in the two largest cities in Honduras (San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa) for the period 2005–2014 and 2) identify possible related socioeconomic and health sector factors. Methods This retrospective ecological operational research study used aggregated data from the National TB Program (socioeconomic and health sector information and individual data from the 2014 TB case notification report). Results TB CNRs declined steadily over the study period in Tegucigalpa (from 46 to 28 per 100 000 inhabitants) but remained high in San Pedro Sula (decreasing from 89 to 78 per 100 000 inhabitants). Similar trends were observed for smear-positive TB. While presumptive TB cases examined were similar for both cities, in San Pedro Sula the proportions of presumptive cases with a positive smear; (7.7% versus 3.6%) relapses (8.9% versus 4.2%); and patients lost to follow-up (10.9% versus 2.7%) were significantly higher, and the treatment success lower (75.7% versus 87.0%). San Pedro Sula had lower annual income per capita, fewer public sector health workers and facilities, and a higher and increasing homicide index. The 2014 TB case data from San Pedro Sula showed a significantly lower median age and a higher proportion of assembly plant workers, prisoners, drug abusers, and diabetes. Conclusions The TB rate was higher and treatment success lower, and health care resources and socio-demographic indicators less favorable, in San Pedro Sula versus Tegucigalpa. City authorities, the NTP, and the health sector overall should strengthen early case detection, treatment, and infection control, involving both public and private health sectors.

RESUMEN Objetivo Describir y comparar las tendencias de las tasas de notificación de casos de tuberculosis y los desenlaces terapéuticos en las dos principales ciudades de Honduras (San Pedro Sula y Tegucigalpa) durante el período del 2005 al 2014; y reconocer los posibles factores socioeconómicos y del sector de la salud que se relacionan con estos resultados. Métodos Estudio ecológico retrospectivo de investigación operativa con datos agregados del Programa Nacional contra la Tuberculosis. La información socioeconómica y del sector de la salud y los datos individuales se obtuvieron del informe de notificación de casos de tuberculosis del 2014. Resultados Las tasas de notificación de casos de tuberculosis disminuyeron en forma sostenida durante el período del estudio en Tegucigalpa (de 46 a 28 por 100 000 habitantes) pero permanecieron altas en San Pedro Sula (disminuyeron de 89 a 78 casos por 100 000 habitantes). Se observaron tendencias análogas en los casos de tuberculosis con baciloscopia positiva. Si bien el número de casos con presunción clínica de tuberculosis examinados en ambas ciudades fue equivalente, en San Pedro Sula los casos con baciloscopia positiva, las recaídas (8,9% frente a 4,2%) y los pacientes perdidos durante el seguimiento (10,9% frente a 2,7%) fueron significativamente más frecuentes y la tasa de éxito terapéutico fue más baja (75,7% frente a 87,0%). En San Pedro Sula se observó un ingreso anual por habitante más bajo, menos personal y establecimientos de salud en el sector público, y un índice más alto y creciente de homicidios. Los datos sobre los casos de tuberculosis del 2014 en San Pedro Sula revelaron una mediana de edad de los pacientes significativamente menor y una mayor proporción de trabajadores de instalaciones de montaje, prisioneros, consumidores de drogas y pacientes con diabetes. Conclusiones En San Pedro Sula la tasa de tuberculosis fue más alta, la tasa de éxito terapéutico fue inferior y los indicadores sobre los recursos de atención de salud y los aspectos sociodemográficos fueron menos favorables en comparación con Tegucigalpa. Las autoridades municipales, el Programa Nacional contra la Tuberculosis y el sector sanitario en general deben fortalecer la detección temprana de casos, el tratamiento y el control de la infección mediante la participación del sector público y el sector privado de la salud.

Multiplex Real-Time PCR Assay Using TaqMan Probes for the Identification of Trypanosoma cruzi DTUs in Biological and Clinical Samples.

BACKGROUND: Trypanosoma cruzi has been classified into six Discrete Typing Units (DTUs), designated as TcI-TcVI. In order to effectively use this standardized nomenclature, a reproducible genotyping strategy is imperative. Several typing schemes have been developed with variable levels of complexity, selectivity and analytical sensitivity. Most of them can be only applied to cultured stocks. In this context, we aimed to develop a multiplex Real-Time PCR method to identify the six T. cruzi DTUs using TaqMan probes (MTq-PCR). METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The MTq-PCR has been evaluated in 39 cultured stocks and 307 biological samples from vectors, reservoirs and patients from different geographical regions and transmission cycles in comparison with a multi-locus conventional PCR algorithm. The MTq-PCR was inclusive for laboratory stocks and natural isolates and sensitive for direct typing of different biological samples from vectors, reservoirs and patients with acute, congenital infection or Chagas reactivation. The first round SL-IR MTq-PCR detected 1 fg DNA/reaction tube of TcI, TcII and TcIII and 1 pg DNA/reaction tube of TcIV, TcV and TcVI reference strains. The MTq-PCR was able to characterize DTUs in 83% of triatomine and 96% of reservoir samples that had been typed by conventional PCR methods. Regarding clinical samples, 100% of those derived from acute infected patients, 62.5% from congenitally infected children and 50% from patients with clinical reactivation could be genotyped. Sensitivity for direct typing of blood samples from chronic Chagas disease patients (32.8% from asymptomatic and 22.2% from symptomatic patients) and mixed infections was lower than that of the conventional PCR algorithm. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Typing is resolved after a single or a second round of Real-Time PCR, depending on the DTU. This format reduces carryover contamination and is amenable to quantification, automation and kit production.

Eco-bio-social research on community-based approaches for Chagas disease vector control in Latin America.

This article provides an overview of three research projects which designed and implemented innovative interventions for Chagas disease vector control in Bolivia, Guatemala and Mexico. The research initiative was based on sound principles of community-based ecosystem management (ecohealth), integrated vector management, and interdisciplinary analysis. The initial situational analysis achieved a better understanding of ecological, biological and social determinants of domestic infestation. The key factors identified included: housing quality; type of peridomestic habitats; presence and abundance of domestic dogs, chickens and synanthropic rodents; proximity to public lights; location in the periphery of the village. In Bolivia, plastering of mud walls with appropriate local materials and regular cleaning of beds and of clothes next to the walls, substantially decreased domestic infestation and abundance of the insect vector Triatoma infestans. The Guatemalan project revealed close links between house infestation by rodents and Triatoma dimidiata, and vector infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. A novel community-operated rodent control program significantly reduced rodent infestation and bug infection. In Mexico, large-scale implementation of window screens translated into promising reductions in domestic infestation. A multi-pronged approach including community mobilisation and empowerment, intersectoral cooperation and adhesion to integrated vector management principles may be the key to sustainable vector and disease control in the affected regions.

A scientometric evaluation of the Chagas disease implementation research programme of the PAHO and TDR.

The Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR) is an independent global programme of scientific collaboration cosponsored by the United Nations Children's Fund, the United Nations Development Program, the World Bank, and the World Health Organization. TDR's strategy is based on stewardship for research on infectious diseases of poverty, empowerment of endemic countries, research on neglected priority needs, and the promotion of scientific collaboration influencing global efforts to combat major tropical diseases. In 2001, in view of the achievements obtained in the reduction of transmission of Chagas disease through the Southern Cone Initiative and the improvement in Chagas disease control activities in some countries of the Andean and the Central American Initiatives, TDR transferred the Chagas Disease Implementation Research Programme (CIRP) to the Communicable Diseases Unit of the Pan American Health Organization (CD/PAHO). This paper presents a scientometric evaluation of the 73 projects from 18 Latin American and European countries that were granted by CIRP/PAHO/TDR between 1997 and 2007. We analyzed all final reports of the funded projects and scientific publications, technical reports, and human resource training activities derived from them. Results about the number of projects funded, countries and institutions involved, gender analysis, number of published papers in indexed scientific journals, main topics funded, patents inscribed, and triatomine species studied are presented and discussed. The results indicate that CIRP/PAHO/TDR initiative has contributed significantly, over the 1997-2007 period, to Chagas disease knowledge as well as to the individual and institutional-building capacity.

Interventions for American cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis: a systematic review update.

INTRODUCTION: Leishmaniasis is an important public health problem in the Americas. A Cochrane review published in 2009 analyzed 38 randomized controlled trials (RCT). We conducted a systematic review to evaluate the effects of therapeutic interventions for American cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. METHODS: All studies were extracted from PubMed, Embase, Lilacs (2009 to July, 2012 respectively), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (6-2012) and references of identified publications. RCTs' risk of bias was assessed. RESULTS: We identified 1865 references of interest; we finally included 10 new RCTs. The risk of bias scored low or unclear for most domains. Miltefosine was not significantly different from meglumine antimoniate in the complete cure rate at 6 months (4 RCT; 584 participants; ITT; RR: 1.12; 95%CI: 0.85 to 1.47; I2 78%). However a significant difference in the rate of complete cure favoring miltefosine at 6 months was found in L. panamensis and L. guyanensis (2 RCTs, 206 participants; ITT; RR: 1.22; 95%CI: 1.02 to 1.46; I2 0%). One RCT found that meglumine antimoniate was superior to pentamidine in the rate of complete cure for L. braziliensis (80 participants, ITT; RR: 2.21; 95%CI: 1.41 to 3.49), while another RCT assessing L. guyanensis did not find any significant difference. Although meta-analysis of three studies found a significant difference in the rate of complete cure at 3 months favoring imiquimod versus placebo (134 participants; ITT; RR: 1.45; 95%CI: 1.12 to 1.88; I2 0%), no significant differences were found at 6 and 12 months. Thermotherapy and nitric oxide were not superior to meglumine antimoniate. CONCLUSION: Therapeutic interventions for American cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis are varied and should be decided according to the context. Since mucosal disease is the more neglected form of leishmaniasis a multicentric trial should be urgently considered.